Engineered extracellular vesicles and their mimetics for clinical translation

Cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) to external environments to achieve cellular homeostasis and cell-to-cell communication. Their therapeutic potential has been constantly spotlighted since they mirror both cytoplasmic and membranous components of parental cells. Meanwhile, growing evidence suggests that EV engineering could further promote EVs with a maximized capacity. In this review, a range of engineering techniques as well as upscaling approaches to exploit EVs and their mimetics are introduced. By laying out the pros and cons of each technique from different perspectives, we sought to provide an overview potentially helpful for understanding the current state of the art EV engineering and a guideline for choosing a suitable technique for engineering EVs. Furthermore, we envision that the advances in each technique will give rise to the combinatorial engineering of EVs, taking us a step closer to a clinical translation of EV-based therapeutics.